Other Measures of Personality

Understanding Personality Assessment Tools: Your Guide to Structured and Projective Tests

You're sitting across from a new client who's struggling at work. They can't figure out why they clash with certain colleagues or why they feel constantly anxious. Or maybe you're assessing someone for career counseling, and they need clarity about their strengths and preferences. How do you get a clear picture of who they really are? This is where personality measures come in, and knowing which tool to use (and why) is crucial for your practice and definitely for the EPPP.

Personality tests fall into two main camps: structured tests (where questions have clear, specific answers) and projective tests (where people respond to ambiguous images and reveal themselves indirectly). Let's break down the most important ones you'll need to know.

Structured Personality Tests: The Multiple-Choice Approach

Structured personality tests work by asking direct questions with fixed response options. {{M}}Think of them like a detailed questionnaire you might fill out for a dating app{{/M}}, the questions are straightforward, the answers are clear, and you're consciously choosing how to present yourself. These tests are objective, meaning different examiners will score them the same way.

Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF)

Raymond Cattell created the 16 PF in 1947 using a fascinating approach. He started with the lexical strategy, which assumes that if a personality trait is important, people will have created words for it. {{M}}It's like how we now have specific words for texting behaviors ("ghosting," "breadcrumbing," "left on read") because these patterns matter in our social lives{{/M}}. Cattell combed through the English language, found all the personality-describing words, then used factor analysis (a statistical method that groups related items together) to condense thousands of descriptors into manageable categories.

The result? Sixteen primary traits and five broader global traits:

The 16 PF gives you a detailed profile. {{M}}It's like having both a broad map of someone's personality landscape and a zoomed-in view of specific neighborhoods{{/M}}. You get the big picture and the details.

Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS)

The EPPS, developed by Edwards in 1959, takes a different approach. It's based on Henry Murray's system of human needs, the same framework behind the TAT (which we'll discuss later). The test measures 15 basic psychological needs like achievement, affiliation (wanting to belong), dominance, and autonomy.

Here's what makes it unique: The EPPS uses a forced-choice format. Each question presents two statements, both relatively neutral in social desirability, and you must pick one. {{M}}Imagine being asked whether you'd rather spend Friday evening networking at a professional event or working alone on a passion project{{/M}}. Both are socially acceptable, but your choice reveals something about your needs.

This format produces ipsative scores, which is fancy terminology for "relative rankings." Here's the critical point for the EPPP: Ipsative scores tell you which needs are strongest within a person (intra-individual comparison) but can't compare how strong someone's needs are relative to other people (inter-individual comparison). {{M}}It's like knowing you prefer coffee to tea without knowing if you're actually a heavy caffeine consumer compared to the general population{{/M}}. You can't use these scores to say "Person A needs achievement more than Person B does," only that "Person A values achievement more than they value affiliation."

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

You've probably encountered this one. It's everywhere from corporate team-building to online personality quizzes. Myers and Briggs developed it between 1943 and 1962 based on Carl Jung's personality typology.

The MBTI measures four bipolar dimensions (meaning each dimension has two opposite ends):

Your results place you into one of 16 personality types. Combinations like ISTP or ENFJ. {{M}}Each type is like a personality recipe with four ingredients{{/M}}, and the combination creates a distinct pattern of behavior and preferences.

Here's something important: While the MBTI is popular and can be useful for self-reflection and career exploration, it has received criticism in academic psychology for reliability and validity issues. You should know it for the EPPP because it's widely used, but be aware of its limitations in clinical settings.

NEO Personality Inventory-3 (NEO-PI-3)

This is the gold standard for measuring the Big Five personality traits, identified by Costa and McCrae in 1985. Like Cattell, they used a lexical approach and factor analysis, but they landed on five core traits instead of sixteen.

The Big Five can be remembered with the acronyms OCEAN or CANOE:

The NEO-PI-3 doesn't just give you scores on these five traits. It also measures six or more specific facets under each trait. {{M}}If the Big Five traits are chapters in someone's personality book, the facets are the individual paragraphs that tell the detailed story{{/M}}.

Here's a clinically significant finding you should know: Research has consistently linked Big Five patterns to psychological disorders. A major meta-analysis by Aschwanden and colleagues in 2021 found that high neuroticism and low conscientiousness significantly predict increased risk for Alzheimer's disease and other neurocognitive disorders. This isn't just academic trivia. It means personality assessment can contribute to early identification of cognitive decline risk.

Projective Personality Tests: Reading Between the Lines

Now we shift to a completely different approach. Projective tests operate on the assumption that when you give people ambiguous, unstructured stimuli and freedom to respond however they want, they'll unconsciously reveal their inner world (their conflicts, needs, and personality structure. {{M}}It's like looking at clouds and seeing shapes{{/M}}) what you see isn't really in the cloud; it comes from your own mind.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Hermann Rorschach published this test in 1921, and it remains one of the most recognizable psychological instruments. The test includes 10 cards with bilaterally symmetrical inkblots (five in black and gray, two with red, and three multicolored).

How it works:

Administration typically has two phases. In the free association phase, the examiner shows cards one at a time and asks, "What might this be?" The client responds however they want. They might see one thing or many things, talk briefly or extensively. Then comes the inquiry phase, where the examiner asks follow-up questions to understand what parts of the inkblot and what characteristics (shape, color, perceived movement) led to each response.

Exner's Comprehensive System is a widely-used scoring method. It categorizes responses along several dimensions:

Location: Which part of the inkblot did the person focus on?

• Whole responses (using the entire inkblot)
• Common detail responses (typical sections)
• Unusual detail responses (rare or small sections)

Determinants: What characteristics influenced the response?

• Form (the shape)
• Movement (perceived action)
• Color
• Shading

Content: What category does the response fall into?

• Human figures
• Animals
• Nature elements
• Objects

Form Quality: How well does the response match the actual inkblot shape? (Good form quality suggests reality testing is intact)

Popularity: Is this a common response? (Many popular responses suggest conventional thinking)

Here's where interpretation gets interesting. Different response patterns indicate different psychological characteristics:

• Many color responses suggest strong emotionality and impulsiveness, the person responds quickly to emotional stimuli
• Many whole responses indicate creative, theoretical thinking, the ability to see the big picture
• Confabulation (taking one detail and overgeneralizing it to the whole inkblot) can suggest cognitive impairment, brain injury, or thought disorders like schizophrenia

{{M}}Imagine someone who looks at every inkblot and immediately reacts to the colors with emotional responses versus someone who carefully analyzes the entire structure before responding{{/M}}. These different approaches reveal different cognitive and emotional styles.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Henry Murray developed the TAT in 1943, building on his theory of human needs (the same framework that informed the EPPS). The test consists of 30 cards, each showing a picture with one or more human figures in various situations. The scenes are deliberately ambiguous. You might see people talking, but you don't know what they're saying or feeling.

How it works:

The client looks at each picture and creates a complete story that includes:

• What's happening in the scene
• What events led up to this moment
• What the characters are thinking and feeling
• How the story ends

Murray's scoring system focuses on:

The hero: Which character does the client identify with? This is typically the character the client talks about most or describes in greatest detail.

Needs: What does the hero want or need? (Achievement, affiliation, power, autonomy, etc.)

Press: What forces are acting on the hero? These can be internal (feelings, thoughts) or external (other people, circumstances)

Outcomes: How does the story end? Positive, negative, ambiguous?

{{M}}Think about how when friends describe a conflict at work, they naturally position themselves as the protagonist and reveal what matters most to them through the details they emphasize{{/M}}, the TAT works the same way, but with standardized images.

The patterns across multiple stories reveal recurring themes. If someone consistently tells stories about achievement despite obstacles, about betrayal in relationships, or about powerlessness, these themes likely reflect their inner world and concerns.

Comparing Structured and Projective Approaches

Common Misconceptions for the EPPP

Misconception 1: "Projective tests are unreliable and invalid, so they're not used anymore."

Reality: While projective tests have lower reliability than structured tests, they remain widely used, especially in clinical and forensic settings. The Rorschach, when scored with systems like Exner's, has demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity for certain purposes. Know both the limitations and the continued applications.

Misconception 2: "The MBTI is scientifically rigorous because it's so popular."

Reality: Popularity doesn't equal scientific validity. The MBTI is popular in organizational settings but has significant limitations. For the EPPP, know what it measures and how it works, but also understand it's not typically the first choice for clinical assessment.

Misconception 3: "Ipsative scores from the EPPS can be compared between people."

Reality: This is a critical distinction. Ipsative scores only allow intra-individual comparisons (within one person). You cannot use EPPS results to say one person has higher achievement needs than another person. Only that achievement ranks higher or lower within each person's own need profile.

Misconception 4: "High neuroticism on the NEO means someone has a mental disorder."

Reality: The Big Five traits are dimensional. Everyone falls somewhere on each continuum. High neuroticism indicates a tendency toward negative emotions and stress reactivity, which is a risk factor for various disorders, but it's not a diagnosis itself.

Practice Tips for Remembering

For the Big Five (OCEAN): Create a vivid mental scene. {{M}}Picture yourself standing by the OCEAN. You're Conscientious about not littering, Extraverted enough to chat with people nearby, Agreeable when someone asks to borrow your sunscreen, and experiencing Neuroticism about whether you applied enough. Meanwhile, your Openness to experience leads you to try that unusual food truck you've never seen before{{/M}}.

For distinguishing tests: Make a simple chart that lists each test's key feature:

For the Rorschach scoring categories: Use the acronym L-D-C-F-P:

• Location
• Determinants
• Content
• Form quality
• Popularity

For remembering which test is which: Focus on what makes each unique:

• Cattell's 16 PF = Started with language/words
• EPPS = Only one with forced-choice and ipsative scores
• MBTI = Only one with 16 types (combinations)
• NEO = The "Big Five" standard
• Rorschach = Only inkblots
• TAT = Only storytelling

Real-World Applications

In clinical practice: You might use the NEO-PI-3 during an initial assessment to understand a client's personality structure, particularly if you're doing longer-term therapy. The trait profile can help predict which therapeutic approaches might work best and what challenges might arise. Someone high in neuroticism and low in agreeableness might be more skeptical of your interventions and more prone to emotional reactivity in sessions.

In forensic psychology: The Rorschach remains valuable for court evaluations because it's harder to fake than self-report measures. Someone trying to appear more impaired or more healthy can easily manipulate a structured test, but they're less likely to know how to manipulate complex scoring systems for ambiguous inkblots.

In career counseling: The MBTI, despite its limitations, can facilitate conversations about work preferences and communication styles. Just be careful about using it for selection decisions or treating types as fixed categories rather than preferences.

In neuropsychological assessment: When someone shows signs of cognitive decline, personality testing (especially the NEO) combined with other measures can help identify early risk factors. That connection between high neuroticism/low conscientiousness and increased dementia risk isn't just theoretical. It has practical implications for early intervention.

In research: The Big Five traits measured by the NEO have become standard in personality research, allowing studies to be compared across different populations and cultures. When you read research about personality and health, career success, or relationship satisfaction, it's usually using the Big Five framework.

Key Takeaways

• Structured personality tests use direct questions with fixed answers; they're objective and measure conscious self-description

• The 16 PF identified 16 primary traits and 5 global factors using the lexical strategy (important traits are encoded in language)

• The EPPS measures 15 needs using forced-choice format; produces ipsative scores that allow intra-individual but NOT inter-individual comparisons

• The MBTI measures 4 bipolar dimensions based on Jung's theory, creating 16 personality types; widely used but has reliability/validity concerns

• The NEO-PI-3 is the gold standard for measuring the Big Five (OCEAN/CANOE); includes specific facets under each trait; high neuroticism + low conscientiousness predict increased dementia risk

• Projective tests assume people reveal unconscious processes when responding to ambiguous stimuli

• The Rorschach uses 10 inkblots; Exner's Comprehensive System scores responses by Location, Determinants, Content, Form quality, and Popularity

• Rorschach interpretation: Color responses = emotionality/impulsiveness; whole responses = creative thinking; confabulation = possible cognitive impairment or psychosis

• The TAT presents ambiguous pictures; examinees tell stories revealing needs, press, and themes through the hero character

• Know the differences: structured tests are more reliable but measure only conscious processes; projective tests access deeper material but require more training to interpret

With this foundation, you're prepared to tackle EPPP questions about personality assessment. Focus on what makes each test unique, what it measures, and its key limitations. Good luck with your studies!